When these tests are used in patients with hippocampal amnesia, no naming impairment is found. Kensinger et al. One task had 96 colored pictures of objects and the other had black and white drawings. HM performed similarly to controls on these tasks, leading to the interpretation that his remote semantic knowledge was intact.
More recently, researchers have sought to examine remote semantic memory in patients with amnesia using more sensitive measures that align more closely with approaches to study semantic richness see below. Klooster and Duff examined how much information is associated with highly familiar words that were previously acquired in patients with amnesia and healthy and brain-damaged comparison participants.
The tasks included a word associates test identifying synonyms and common collocates , a word senses task name all the senses of a word; e. Patients with amnesia performed significantly worse than healthy and brain-damaged comparison groups i. For example, patients with amnesia generated, on average, only half the number of features for common words e. The deficit in remote semantic memory was even evident on tasks where all the information was in view of the participants.
For example, when provided with a word e. Furthermore, this deficit was evident despite showing no differences from comparison participants on self-reported rates of familiarity scoring familiarity on a 9-point scale of words used in the word features and senses tasks.
Importantly, the fact that the patients knew these words i. Using tasks and measures that assess semantic richness, or depth of semantic knowledge, patients with hippocampal amnesia perform significantly worse than comparison groups suggesting impoverished remote semantic memory.
These findings also raise the possibility that the hippocampus plays a long-term role in maintaining semantic representations across the lifetime. Returning to studies of naming, deficits in remote semantic knowledge in amnesia are also evident when a more extensive set of items are probed. Dawood et al. Unlike previous naming studies that all contained fewer than images, this study used 1, items from the Bank of Standardized Stimuli BOSS database Brodeur et al.
By using a wide range of image-word pairs, even subtle differences between patients with amnesia and comparisons in naming may be detected. Unlike previous tests of naming in this population, Dawood et al. Furthermore, patients with amnesia were more likely to provide a general label for an object e.
Using a wider range of materials and a detailed analysis of error type provides further evidence of the impoverishment of remote semantic memory in amnesia. Closer examination of language production also reveals group differences where patients with amnesia use words rated as less semantically rich relative to controls. Hilverman et al. Features of words reflect characteristics of what the word describes e.
Although patients with amnesia are known to produce significantly fewer episodic details in their descriptions of events Race et al. In both cases, the number of episodic details is the same, but the imageability and concreteness of the words used are much greater in the second account. This was found even when controlling for number of overall features in the narrative and word frequency.
This finding fits with data from Heyworth and Squire who found that in narrative recollections of a guided walk, patients with amnesia used higher-frequency and less concrete words than controls.
Thus, even in semi-naturalistic speaking contexts, patients with amnesia demonstrate language use that is semantically impoverished. These deficits in remote semantic memory are not present only in fine-grained aspects of language. Similar findings have been demonstrated in patients with amnesia when describing semantic knowledge acquired long before the onset of their amnesia.
When prompted to recount fairy tales and bible stories, patients with amnesia produce fewer details than controls Rosenbaum et al. Patients with MTL lesions also show impairment in the general details and in the ordering of the main steps Verfaellie et al. Further, a review of neuropsychological research on autobiographical knowledge demonstrated that patients with MTL damage were impaired on measures of autobiographical fact knowledge—a type of personal semantic memory—relative to comparison participants Grilli and Verfaellie, Finally, patients with MTL damage are impaired relative to healthy participants at generating hypothetical meanings for novel word compounds e.
There is growing evidence of remote semantic memory impairment in amnesia. These impairments may mirror deficits in remote episodic memory in amnesia. Close examination of remote episodic memory in amnesia reveals a lack of specificity, detail, and richness relative to healthy participants e. One challenge of testing the shared dependence of episodic and semantic memory on the hippocampus has been equating task demands and characteristics of the to-be-learned stimuli across memory systems.
A consequence of the early confirmation and consensus on the role of the hippocampus in episodic memory while the early data on semantic memory were more equivocal is that the number of investigations and highly sophisticated experimental designs to study episodic memory have significantly outpaced those on semantic memory.
Consistent with proposals that view the hippocampus as playing a critical role in relational binding and in the flexible re construction and re combination of rich multimodal features of events and experiences Eichenbaum and Cohen, ; Schacter and Addis, ; Ranganath, ; Yonelinas, ; Rubin et al.
For example, to study episodic memory, we have coding schemes for rating and quantifying the spatial, temporal, and perceptual vividness and richness of event narratives e. In contrast, particularly in patient studies, the study of semantic memory still largely involves asking individuals to label pictures of famous faces and to learn facts or word-meaning pairings Manns et al.
Our methods and techniques for measuring episodic and semantic memory, and equating task demands and stimuli, are further apart than they were decades ago. This lack of methodological depth and breadth in the study of semantic memory and therefore the lack of substantive data has made it difficult for researchers to offer complete and comprehensive theories across distinct forms of memory.
For example, Nadel and Moscovitch note in their seminal paper laying out the points of similarity and divergence between standard consolidation models and their multiple trace theory that most studies of remote general semantic knowledge do not include detailed tests sensitive enough to detect deficits, which limits the comparison to other forms of memory.
More recently, Yonelinas et al. Discussion of semantic memory was cursory, with the authors simply stating that whether or not contextual binding theory might be applied to semantic memory is an open question. Indeed, given the dearth of semantic memory studies with sufficient depth and sensitivity, this is all that can be said. This lack of data and methods may also make it more attractive, or tractable, to test hypotheses for which there are more established data and tools as is the case in the area of episodic memory.
Thus, over the past several decades, not only have researchers moved further away from testing if episodic and semantic memory has shared neural correlates, but, as a field, we are ill-equipped methodologically and theoretically to do so. Other disciplines e. From these fields come a set of tools and methods with increased sensitivity to capture a wider breadth of semantic memory phenomena than used in the memory literature to date.
These methods may also have utility in attempts to equate task demands and stimuli across memory systems. In the next section, we review some of these broader approaches to demonstrate the similarities between episodic and semantic memory and to highlight their application to recent studies of hippocampal contributions to semantic memory. Episodic memory is often described as a dynamic system capable of reconstructive and combinational processes that allow us to recollect about our past and simulate future events Buckner and Carroll, ; Schacter and Addis, While the study of semantic memory in amnesia has often been reduced to word-definition pairs or recognition of famous faces or facts, other perspectives view semantic memory as a highly flexible, re constructive, relational and multimodal system that we use to create, represent, and extract meaning as we navigate our most fundamental interactions with the environment and each other Rogers et al.
Like episodic memory, semantic knowledge is not a static repository of information. Rather, it grows and changes as we continuously acquire, integrate, and reinforce rich representations of the relations between words, their referents, and their relations with associated referents Zettersten et al.
Indeed, it is estimated that the average English-speaking adult has acquired These millions of bits of information are not isolated, but rather are interconnected and combined in both familiar and novel ways to represent and act in the world.
The acquisition of richly interleaved semantic knowledge is facilitated by the dynamic contexts in which words are learned and used. For example, single words are seldom learned or presented in isolation. Rather, words appear in rich contexts in which related words and concepts are also present, facilitating the development of interrelated semantic representations that can be flexibly deployed Wojcik and Saffran, , ; Wojcik, In addition to representing the relations between words and their referents, while adding increasing layers of nuance to the meanings of words over time Ellis and Ogden, , learners also represent relationships among lexical items, based on their co-occurrence in the ambient language Arnon and Christiansen, That is, many sequences of words repeatedly co-occur in language and we encode those relations in addition to our knowledge of individual words Pawley and Syder, Like episodic memory, which is often characterized, and measured, in terms of its richness e.
Semantic richness refers to the amount of information contained within or associated with a word or concept and it influences the speed and accuracy of behavioral responses e. Words and concepts that are richer, or associated with more information, are also better remembered Hargreaves et al.
Semantic richness can be indexed or measured in a number of ways. It can be a metric of how many concepts, words, or features are associated with a specific word. Words with denser semantic neighborhoods—or words that are associated with many different words or concepts—are processed more quickly in naming, lexical retrieval, and lexical decision tasks e. Semantic richness can also be represented by how many sensory and perceptual features are associated with a particular word or concept.
Semantic richness can also be a reflection of how many contexts a word or concept is associated with or can be successfully used in, typically measured across print sources Adelman et al.
Words that appear across more diverse contexts facilitate faster word naming and lexical decision times than do words that are just more frequently occurring. From the perspective of richness, there are obvious parallels between semantic and episodic memory.
Manipulating semantic richness may be one way to help equate stimuli and task demands across memory systems. For example, work by Klooster and Duff and Hilverman et al. Manipulating context as a form of semantic richness may also provide an opportunity to expand on, or test, existing memory theory. For example, contextual diversity is an interesting measure as it seems to capture the interaction of semantic representation and episodic experience rather than the extraction or decontextualization of semantics from episodes e.
Rich semantic representations allow us to go beyond the literal meanings of words themselves, combining and integrating across concepts to communicate meanings that might otherwise be inexpressible Katz, For example, the use of metaphor in human communication and thought is widespread Lakoff and Johnson, To generate and comprehend metaphors e.
Metaphor comprehension requires rapid processing of novel relations between seemingly disparate lexical items, and may, therefore, place high demands on the MTL relational memory system.
Use of a metaphor is also inherently creative. Metaphors are thought to be a primary device driving lexical innovation McGlone et al.
Another example is a conceptual combination. Speakers leverage the relations among lexical items to create new concepts and meaning by combining words and concepts from pre-existing knowledge stores e.
Metaphor and conceptual combination would seem to require the same compositionality and representational flexibility inherent in characterizations of episodic memory.
That is, relational representations semantic and episodic can be broken down into constituent elements, which can then be combined and recombined in novel ways Cohen and Eichenbaum, ; Cohen et al.
Metaphor generation and conceptual combination clearly involve the combination of far-reaching mental representations and results in the generation of a verbal expression that creatively combines disparate concepts to provide the listener with novel insight. These creative combinatorial and constructive features of semantic memory processing and use are highly reminiscent of the flexible and creative re construction and re combination of episodic memory representations for remembering the past and imagining the future Buckner and Carroll, ; Schacter and Addis, Indeed, individuals with hippocampal pathology are impaired in creative uses of language Duff et al.
Furthermore, work by Keane et al. Viewed through a broader interdisciplinary lens, episodic and semantic memory have many shared features including the depth and breadth of multimodal relational information they encompass and the constructive and flexible nature of their expression and use across contexts. While these shared features align closely with the processing capabilities of the hippocampus e.
We next review recent developments in our understanding of the hippocampus that further align, and demonstrate, the capacity of the hippocampus to meet the processing demands of semantic memory use and processing. The hippocampus has long been associated with long-term memory. Converging evidence has challenged the traditional view that the hippocampus exclusively supports long-term memory, showing that the hippocampus plays a critical role in memory for relations over very short delays, and even when there are no delays at all, on the timescale of short-term or working memory Hannula et al.
These findings suggest that new hippocampus-dependent representations are available rapidly enough to influence ongoing processing when: new information is perceived; old information is retrieved; and representations are held on-line to be evaluated, manipulated, integrated, and used in service of behavioral performance. That is, the hippocampus is critical not only for the ability to form new enduring memories and to recover the past, but also for the creation, maintenance, updating, and use of on-line representations in support of ongoing information processing.
These findings raise the possibility of hippocampal involvement in real-time semantic processing. The hippocampus has also long been associated with explicit and conscious processing. Although implicit semantic processing tasks have often been assumed to be hippocampal independent, these new findings raise the possibility that the hippocampus may contribute to some aspects of unconscious or implicit semantic processing also see Gaskell et al. Initial support for such a prediction comes from data pointing to hippocampal contributions to statistical learning, the process by which individuals uncover patterns in their environment by tracking co-occurrence frequencies amongst stimuli.
In language, statistical learning is the proposed mechanism by which we learn to segment words from continuous speech Saffran et al. There is also evidence to suggest that statistical learning mechanisms contribute to semantic knowledge by supporting the mapping of word meanings onto word forms Graf Estes et al.
Although considered an implicit learning process, recent work imaging and patient studies demonstrates a role for the hippocampus in the tracking of statistical regularities in the environment, across stimulus modalities Schapiro et al. Taken together with the long-acknowledged role of the hippocampus in relational binding, these new findings have significant implications for understanding the role the hippocampus may play in various stages of acquisition, maintenance, activation, and use of semantic information.
By combining broader theoretical and methodological approaches to semantic memory and the functionality of the hippocampus, there is a growing literature demonstrating hippocampal contributions to semantic progressing in the moment.
Next, we highlight studies that have documented hippocampus contributions in on-line semantic memory processing. A particularly innovative approach to studying hippocampal contributions to on-line semantic memory processing comes from intracranial recordings from depth electrodes in patients with intractable epilepsy. These studies have the advantage of a high degree of both spatial and temporal specificity, allowing for tests of the nature and time course of hippocampal contributions to semantic processing.
Solomon et al. In this study, patients with depth electrodes with contacts on hippocampus completed study and recall of sets of item lists. During recall, patients demonstrated the expected behavioral pattern of clustering list items based on both their temporal relations e. Hippocampal theta power prior to the retrieval event was predictive of the semantic relationship in the two subsequently recalled words, suggesting that hippocampal theta power codes for semantic relatedness in multi-dimensional word space.
These data are striking as they suggest a role for the hippocampus in tracking and representing the relations among words in semantic memory in a manner that is similar to how the hippocampus tracks and represents relations in physical space and events in episodic memory. Piai et al.
In contrast to the list learning in the Solomon study, patients in the Piai study were not required to learn any new information. In this study, the patients listened to sentences with the final word omitted and were then presented with a picture to name that could complete the sentence.
In the experiment, half of the sentences presented to the patients began with a sentence stem that linguistically constrained the possible final word [e. The results demonstrated that constraining sentence stems facilitated the picture naming response, and that hippocampal theta power increased during the sentence stem for the constrained vs. Further analysis of these data demonstrated that the increases in theta power were related to increasing semantic associations between words in the sentence.
Using latent semantic analysis LSA , Piai et al. In the constrained condition, all patients demonstrated increased theta power at this keyword compared to the preceding word, a pattern that was not present in the unconstrained condition. These results demonstrated that the hippocampus contributes to tracking and building semantic associations across words, and suggest a role for the hippocampus in predictive language processing also see Bonhage et al. In a similar study to Piai et al. Greater HFB power was observed during the pre-picture period during the highly constraining vs.
Indeed, patterns of HFB power in the pre-picture and picture intervals were compared using time series analyses, and the degree of similarity between these patterns was higher for highly constrained items. These patterns of hippocampal HFB power were then compared to one another based on semantic similarity as calculated using LSA.
Results indicated that HFB power pre-activation patterns were more similar for pictures that were closer in semantic distance to one another. During picture naming, left hippocampal HFB power increased during the period between picture presentation and word production, relative to the pre-stimulus baseline.
The authors suggest that these results point to a role for the hippocampus in retrieving the arbitrary associations between objects and their names. The results from these intracranial recording studies suggest that, in addition to the role for the hippocampus in the acquisition of new semantic memory and maintenance of remote semantic memory, the hippocampus also encodes, tracks, and builds semantic relations of previously acquired words during on-line sentence processing to create meaning in the moment and to facilitate communication see Cross et al.
The role of the hippocampus in semantic memory processing appears remarkably similar to the role the hippocampus plays in its support of episodic memory. Building on this work, interdisciplinary approaches to the study of hippocampal contributions to semantic memory promise to expand and refine the theories and methods across fields and may offer researchers new paradigms that will allow for integrating the study of episodic and semantic memory.
It has been nearly 50 years since Tulving suggested that memory research may benefit from observing a distinction between episodic and semantic memory. Indeed, like episodic memory, semantic memory is a highly flexible, re constructive, relational and multimodal knowledge system.
Furthermore, like episodic memory, semantic memory also depends critically on the hippocampus; patients with dense amnesia following hippocampal damage cannot acquire new semantic memory fully normally, just as they do not have the normal capacity for acquiring new episodic memory. This review highlights the role the hippocampus plays across nearly all stages of semantic memory including acquisition, maintenance, and processing in real-time.
There is growing recognition that the history of studying memory systems in isolation and the search for dissociations has led many to overlook the well-documented interdependence of episodic and semantic memory Greenberg and Verfaellie, ; Ferreira et al. Recent work also highlights the pivotal role semantic memory plays across many, if not all, forms of episodic memory, irrespective of time constraints Irish and Piguet, Future work developing methods and materials that fully capture the depth and breadth of semantic memory and processing will be critical in facilitating comparison across forms of memory and in understanding their cognitive and neural inter dependencies as well as in testing the psychological and anatomical reality of the distinction in memory between semantic and episodic memory.
Integrating the study of episodic and semantic, understanding their interactions, interdependencies, and shared mechanisms, promises to advance our understanding of how words, concepts, and meaning, as well as episodes and events, are integrated, instantiated and maintained in memory, giving new insights into our two most quintessentially human abilities: memory and language.
MD and NJC planned the scope and content of the review. All authors contributed to the final version of the manuscript, intellectually and in the writing and editing. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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The semantic memory focuses much on the factual and conceptual knowledge about the world and the way it expressed in terms of words. So basically, it supports the ability to interact in terms of language. This includes knowledge about the language and conceptual information. Rather general knowledge also counts in the same.
It too involves the two major components about the event which are when did the event occur and where? Conjugating the certain episode in terms of the period can equally be explained through this phenomenon. Like, some days you are not sure about the day you are in.
But you may confess, that it is your routine to have a check-up on Monday, so it might be Monday this day. Or it can be like you may fail to recognize one thing, but integration in terms of time and space will help you recall. Though, episodic memories particularly about the events when and how it happened but it must not involve remembering the experience.
Sometimes it happens, people fail to make memories. It is mostly seen in the rare case of Herpes Encephalitis, a viral infection. The Central nervous system is ravaged and is among the profound cases of amnesia. Our memories account a lot in our lives to help us connect our past to the present. Hence, the learning process is summed up eventually to bring about a desired interactive effect.
Memories are like not all or nothing things. Despite not able to recall recently processed memories, a person suffering from encephalitis may remember how to eat, what to speak and how to sketch. Few of the memories store differently and gets into you through automated work processes you go through. Memory is defined to be the learning that has become persistent over time, stored and can be recalled.
To access your memory, you need to consider 3Rs. These are recall, recognition and relearning. The recall is the retrieval of the memory a person must have learnt earlier. Like, recalling Mango as the king of all fruits. The recognition is like identifying all relatable information and eliminating the odd one. The relearning is reinforcing information you have been learning all the way. Like learning the mathematics formulae and then revising it.
All work through synaptic connections within our brains. The memory formation is broken down into three main stages:.
The episodic and semantic memories are information processing systems. In Gibson explained memory to be the selective retrieval of information from perceptual systems or other cognitive systems, retain that information, transmit the desire information to other place and latter translating it into conscious and behavioural awareness.
The episodic memory receives and stores information for short episodes and the events show a temporal-spatial relationship. While the semantic memory is necessary for the use of language. A perpetual event can be stored in the episodic forms, but it depends solely on how the person perceives while the latter accommodates the integrated word bank and overall knowledge the person possesses.
The episodic memory is a thought dependent process while the semantic memory is independent of episodic streams. It maintains and records memories through logical inputs. Tulving suggested this idea and he came up with the multi-core model of the theory.
He proposed to major classifications which are episodic and semantic. The earlier is concerned with remembering experiences while later with remembering facts. The episodic memory is more at an autobiographical front that can be explicitly stated.
The semantic memory is a derivative of episodic memory to capture facts and figures. There is a transition from episodic to semantic terms. The episodic memories are more related to hippocampus regions while the latter is known to activate frontal and temporal cortexes. Tulving further refined his concepts by adding that subjective time allows possible mental time travel from present to past linking the events.
Additive recognitions were self-knowing credits of the episodic memories. He too brought attention towards the loss of episodic memory is concerned with temporal medial lobe lesions where semantic memory is known to stay intact. While people suffering from semantic dementia lose this type of memory, while the episodic memory is spared. It explains the future is dependent on the memories made in past. It is the way through which one can see himself in future and can come up with the outcomes beforehand.
This is an emerging ability in the younger ones. These processes underlie the same cognitive processes. It allows one to analyse situational affairs and getting it in terms of future. Exploring research is mainly done on years old children and young adults to find the relationship between episodic memory and future-state-planning.
It allows the crosstalk between current situations and future motivational states. More and more researches are taking place in terms of this emerging theory. The studies mainly focus on the fact that earlier years in school impact the thinking of young ones letting them plan, prepare and shape their future.
They even anticipate the hazards associated with it. It's been a long debate in neuropsychology in concern to both dependence on each other. How do we know this? In , a patient named Henry Molaison had his hippocampus surgically removed during an operation in the United States to treat his epilepsy.
His epilepsy was cured, and Molaison lived a further 55 healthy years. However, after the surgery he was only able to form episodic memories that lasted a matter of minutes; he was completely unable to permanently store new information. He was, however, still able to improve his performance on various motor tasks, even though he had no memory of ever encountering or practising them.
The study of Henry Molaison was revolutionary because it showed that multiple types of memory existed. We now know that rather than relying on the hippocampus, implicit motor learning occurs in other brain areas — the basal ganglia and cerebellum.
The neocortex is the largest part of the cerebral cortex, the sheet of neural tissue that forms the outside surface of the brain, distinctive in higher mammals for its wrinkly appearance. In humans, the neocortex is involved in higher functions such as sensory perception, generation of motor commands, spatial reasoning and language.
Over time, information from certain memories that are temporarily stored in the hippocampus can be transferred to the neocortex as general knowledge — things like knowing that coffee provides a pick-me-up. Researchers think this transfer from hippocampus to neocortex happens as we sleep.
This is particularly important because strong emotional memories e. The amygdala doesn't just modify the strength and emotional content of memories; it also plays a key role in forming new memories specifically related to fear. Fearful memories are able to be formed after only a few repetitions. Understanding how the amygdala processes fear is important because of its relevance to post-traumatic stress disorder PTSD , which affects many of our veterans as well as police, paramedics and others exposed to trauma.
Anxiety in learning situations is also likely to involve the amygdala, and may lead to avoidance of particularly challenging or stressful tasks.
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